인지과업분석을 위한 컨셉 매핑

Concept mapping as Cognitive task analysis.

In order to conduct CTA in a given domain, the researcher needs to learn about the domain, that is, they need to bootstrap themselves to a sufficient level of understanding. Concept mapping can play a role here…. We mentioned earlier that some of the things practitioners know about are events, processes, procedures, and their own reasoning strategies. These are fair game for concept mapping. —loc. 967, Chapter 4, Working minds

Hyperlinked maps:

Concept maps on a given topic can be hyperlinked together. For example, the concept node “The Critical Decision Method” in figure 4.3 might be hyperlinked to another concept map that goes into detail about CDM. When a set of concept maps is linked together this way, and organized by a “Map of Concept Maps,” they form what are referred to as Concept Map knowledge models. —loc. 967, Chapter 4, Working minds

Procedure

Facilitator and mapper:

During the knowledge elicitation one researcher acts as a facilitator and provides support in the form of suggestions and probe questions, while the other acts as the mapper and captures the participant’s statements in the Concept Map, which is projected on a screen for all to see…. Sometimes, the domain practitioner expresses ideas at a rate that overwhelms the mapper. It can be tempting in such circumstances to audiotape the session so that it can be transcribed and analyzed at a later time to pull out any propositions that were missed during Concept Mapping on the fly. A study of this problem showed clearly that the process of transcription and protocol analysis was so time consuming that it would have been far more efficient to recapture the “lost” knowledge by subsequent Concept Mapping interviews (Hoffman, Coffey, and Ford 2000). —loc. 1082, Chapter 4, Working minds

Six steps:

Step 1. Select the Domain and Focus…. Concept Mapping as a CTA method must be conducted so as to tap into the practitioner’s knowledge that lies at heart of task activities. A clear, explicit focus helps to define the context and aids in the process of expressing the knowledge that is pertinent to that context.

The practitioner and the interviewer identify a “focus question” that addresses the problem, issues, or knowledge domain that they wish to Concept Map. Examples would be: “How do thunderstorms form?” or “What is cognitive engineering?” … The focus question is typically expressed as an unattached node or header toward the upper left corner of the Concept Map space. The explicit presence of the focus question helps to keep the discussion oriented on the knowledge that is most relevant to the problem or question….

Guided by the focus question, the participant is asked to identify five to ten of the broadest, most overarching, more general, or most important concepts that are involved in the topic. —loc. 1116, Chapter 4, Working minds

Step 2. Set up the “Parking Lot” and Arrange the Concepts. Next, the concepts are arranged in what is called a “parking lot.” The concepts are moved around in the space to place the most inclusive or most general concepts (those that seem to be most important or most closely related to the topic) toward the top of the Concept Map. —loc. 1149, Chapter 4, Working minds

Step 3. Begin to Link the Concepts. At this step, the mapper begins to link the concepts…. It is necessary to try to be precise in identifying linking words, although there is no limit to the sorts of terms that can be used as relational links. They could be categorized in any number of ways. Links can express causal relations (e.g. “leads to”, “produces”), classificational relations (e.g. “includes”, “is an example of”), nominal relations (e.g. “is known as”), property relations (e.g. “can be”, “has defining feature”, “consists of”), explanatory relations (e.g. “is a reason for”), procedure or method relations (e.g. “results in”, “is done by”, “is a way to do”), event relations (e.g. “comes before”), and uncertainty or frequency relations (e.g. “is more common than”).

Individuals who are new to Concept Mapping sometimes comment that it is difficult to come up with appropriate words to use as links between concepts. This is sometimes because they have yet to achieve a clear understanding of propositional thinking and relationships between concepts, and it is the linking words that specify this relationship. Once people begin to settle on good linking words and also identify good cross-links, they can see that every concept could be related to many other concepts. This can also produce some frustration, and they must choose to identify the most prominent and most useful links. —loc. 1161, Chapter 4, Working minds

Step 4. Refine the Concept Map…. This includes adding, subtracting, and changing the link labels that express the various subsumption and differentiation relationships. It includes checking to see that all the node-link-node triples express propositions. Good Concept Maps usually are those that have undergone one or two waves of refinement, although with practice one can make a good Concept Map in a single pass through these steps…. A Concept Map that contains the same concept two or more times can usually be rearranged (this takes practice) so that the concept only appears once….

As a rule of thumb, if there are more than four or five concepts linked under a given concept, this means that there are latent concepts, or some sort of intermediate level that the practitioner has not yet expressed. Specifying these intermediate concepts often leads to insights, and once the latent concepts are made explicit, they often serve a useful role making it possible to link to other concepts, expressing relations that would have otherwise been difficult or even impossible to express as long as those intermediates had been left tacit. —loc. 1176, Chapter 4, Working minds

Step 5. Look for New Relations and Cross-Links, and Further Refine the Concept Map. At this step, the mapper looks for “cross-links” between concepts in different sections of the Concept Map…. In our experience at Concept Mapping knowledge elicitation with domain practitioners, it almost always happens that at some point in the procedure, the practitioner says something like, “You know, I’ve never really thought out this (concept, relation) in quite this way, but now that it comes up …” …

Research suggests that a Concept Map that has been created and refined by one expert can expect to have about ten percent of its propositions altered when the Concept Map is evaluated by some other expert (Hoffman, Coffey, and Ford 2000). This is not because experts disagree (although they can). Rather, it is wordsmithing - a reflection of their differing emphases, their judgments of what is important, and the subtleties of word choice (e.g., “promotes” vs. “causes”). —loc. 1176, Chapter 4, Working minds

Step 6. Build the Knowledge Model. A set of Concept Maps all on a particular topic and hyperlinked together is referred to as a knowledge model. Resources are another important feature of knowledge models, and the process of adding resources to Concept Maps should be considered integral to Concept Maps as a form of CTA…. Resources can be text pieces that go into detail about the concepts to which they are appended. They can link to operational manuals, standard operating procedures documents, or forms that the practitioner needs to complete….

In addition to having resources added, Concept Maps on a given theme are often hyperlinked together. —loc. 1212, Chapter 4, Working minds

Team or group concept mapping:

There are a number of different ways in which Concept Mapping can be conducted with groups of participants. Teams can discuss the Concept Maps made by individuals. A team might assemble a “Global Concept Map” for their domain or organization. A team leader might define the key questions and create a preliminary global Concept Map, and the team can work off of that. Alternatively, a team might be divided into subteams to develop Concept Maps for subdomains. —loc. 1231, Chapter 4, Working minds

What makes for a good concept map in the CTA context?

The value of Concept Mapping as a knowledge elicitation procedure lies in achieving a clear, precise description of domain knowledge. Good Concept Maps do that well.

A good Concept Map is comprehensive relative to its focus question and top node. It is important to ensure that all of the concept associated with the topic and pertinent to the CTA goals are included in the Concept Map. Sometimes basic and important concepts are overlooked…. Concept Maps need to be large or complex enough to maximize the changes for identifying significant crosslinks, and not so large as to suggest that they be split up into submaps….

A good Concept Map manifests global relevance. Since there is a significant element of associational thinking in the creation of a Concept Map (“Concept 1 makes to think of Concept 2”), it can happen that the mapper introduces concepts that are of relatively low relevance to the topic at hand….

A good Concept Map also has the right “granularity.”

—loc. 1250, Chapter 4, Working minds